Assignment of Theories of Communication
Taqwa Ahmed
BS part III
Department of Media and Communications
Outline of Assignment
# Normative theories of press
1: Authoritarian theory of press
2: Soviet-communist theory of press
3: Libertarian or free press media theory
4: Social responsibility theory of press.
# Source theories
Agenda Setting theory
# Message theories
Diffusion of Innovations
Key elements in the diffusion process
Adopter
Categories of adopter
Five stages of adopting process
Framing Analysis
Content Analysis
Discourse Analysis
Two-Step flow if information
# Audience theories
Uses and Gratification theory
Cultivation Analysis.
INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION:
The word communication signifies the process of expressing your thoughts by words, symbols or by performing an action. The process of Communication needs a source, sender, channel, receiver, message and feedback. To study the process of transferring information, communication theory is important. Communication theory is a field of information theory that explains the production of information and how information is transmitted.
To study mass media and communication has led to the formation of many theories and Theories of communication are one of them. These theories are given to study the work of media and communication and to let the students and media persons know.
The ideal way for a media system to be controlled and how the governments of the countries, authorities, leaders, and public can use media for transferring their message.
So why theories of communication is important to learn? For journalism and as being a part of media it is very important to learn the theories if communication because these theories directly impact our lives and try to teach us the important aspects of how and what to publish in the press for the audience.
The second important thing which we can learn by understanding the theories of communication is that we will able to know that what our audience like? What is the psychology of your audience? And how will your audience response if you publish the article, news or any piece in your way. It let us know how to interact with your audience. By the help of the communication theories we will know the like and dislikes if our audience and what to censor and what content we can publish accordingly to in which country we are living.
•••NORMATIVE THEORIES OF PRESS•••
(Four theories OF press)
Normative theories of press were first proposed by Fred Siebert, Theodore Peterson and Wilbur Schramm in their book called ‘Four Theories of the Press’ which was pronounced in USA during the height of “Cold war” with communism and soviet, often called as Western theories of mass media. This theory is also known as four theories of press.
“A Normative theory describes an ideal way for a media system to be controlled and operated by governments, authority, leader, and public”. These theories are different from other press theories because normative theories are more focused in the relationship between the press and the government than press and audience. These theories are more concern about the ownership of media and who controls the press or media in the country.
The four theories of press are:
- Authoritarian media theory
- Soviet-communist media theory
- Libertarian or free press media theory
- Social responsibility media theory.
Basically the Normative theory of press which describes the way how much press can publish and what are the demands of the government on press and of audience. The normative theory of press let us know that who basically control the media either it is government or the public. These are the all things which normative theory of press or the four theories of press try to acknowledge us about.
1: Authoritarian Media Theory:
Authoritarian theory of press is a theory in which the media is in control of government, elites or authorities. Media is not allowed to criticize the powerful people or the government. There is a censorship by government or authority on criticism and other things which can be negatively portrayed or framed by media against them.
Similarly, licensing of media punishments and content approval are other means used to curb full freedom of press. Media is taken as a means to serve the interest of authorities and state. The theory ignores needs of people and only establishes agendas and propagandas.
The freedom in the countries which apply Authoritarian theory is limited. People are bound of expressing their idea, their perspective against government or any higher personality. The press in Bhutan can be taken as example of authoritarian theory in practice.
In 16th century, the kings authorized and controlled the press and emphasize that the media will not publish anything against them because it will cause anarchy (lawlessness, absence of government) or turmoil in society that’s why they imposed censorship on press.
The Authoritarian theory of press is applied mostly in GULF countries which are (South-west Asian countries bordering Persian gulf) they are seven in numbers: U.A.E, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar, Kuwait, Iran and South-East Asian countries like Brunei, Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Timor-Leste, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam. The people of these countries can’t even protest or publish any thing against their Kings, government or politics.
This censorship is applied as:
- Political censorship
- Religious censorship
- Military censorship
- Corporate censorship.
Political Censorship:
The media is restricted, the press can’t talk directly about Judiciary, Constitutions, Industries and about political issues either there is democracy or dictatorship, the media is totally controlled and is not allowed to show anything against them.
e.g. North Korea, Singapore or Iran etc.
Religious Censorship:
Censorship of religion is the form of censorship where there is no freedom to share your views or opinions about any religion. There is a censorship over freedom of expression on religious aspects. The peoples are controlled or limited towards the religious authorities, or using it on the basis of teachings is banned.
Mostly the bigoted religious countries have this kind of censorship where the media is not allowed to talk against the religion or to show anything against the religious teachings.
e.g. years back I’ve heard a news that some Americans had made movie on the Holy prophet (P.B.U.H) they had shown all the characters his friends and him in the movie, so the movie was banned in every Islamic State and was also banned from YouTube.
The other examples of religious censorship can be prohibition of the books like: “The Satanic verses” by Iran. The images of religious personalities like our Holy Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.S) are censored.
Military Censorship:
Military censorship is a censorship which I think is implied in every country of the world because if we not hide our military activities it would be trouble for us Military Censorship can be imposed for legitimate reasons like protecting the country and hiding it’s secrets from the world either they are good or bad. If the secrets are imposed to enemies it will cost lives.
Corporate Censorship:
Corporate censorship is a censorship by corporations organizations. It is applied in many kind of industries to avoid the loss of their business they censorship many things which can be harmful or a threat to them, such kind of censorship in journalism is common.
When a spokesperson, employer or business associate license a speakers speech by threat of financial loss, employment loss or loss of access to any market place the media censors such kind of news which might hurt their financial interest, privacy. They censorship these kind of news to not to put themselves in endangering situation and to not loss their career.
Plus Not to talk or publish anything about the industries like steel mills which make weapons for the country. It can be harmful for the country.
These are the four kinds of censorship which authoritarian theory applies. Authoritarian theory was obligated in 16th and 17th century. This theory is based on situations and conditions. Traditional media like ( T.v, radio, newspaper) is very much in control of government but sometimes social media also imposed Authoritarian theory and banned or block those accounts who talk against the laws and ethics ( mostly noticed on Twitter).
2: Libertarian Theory of Press:
(Free press media theory or Democratic theory)
The libertarian theory of press is totally opposite of Authoritarian media theory. It is also called “Free press media theory”. Unlike authoritarian theory it is applied on the Democratic countries like Europe or western countries. That’s why it is also called “Democratic theory”. In this theory press is given absolute freedom to publish anything at anytime.
The people are allowed to share their opinion and express their ideas about politics, religion, military, or any corporation, the point of view of the citizens is highly welcomed.
This theory come from the libertarians thoughts of Europe during 16th century after the invention of printing press.
The theory believes in freedom of expressions, thoughts and individualism. There is no control of authority or government and everybody has a right to give voice to their opinions. There is no censorship on anything and government must not hold any power to suppress or to control the media.
Freedom of press or freedom of expression has become the part of people’s lie in Europe, after world war II the president of United press Hugh Baillie promoted the Freedom of News. So now on all in Europe press has authority to talk about any issue freely.
- The most important feature of libertarian theory of media are:
- The press is free to publish any thing.
- There is no censorship
- There is a full right of publishing any kind if news.
- Freedom of thoughts and expressions
- The government doesn’t own media.
- Media can publish anything content.
There are both negative and positive impacts of freedom or press or Libertarian theory.
The positive one and the strongest point of this theory is to disseminate the true information throughout the world. The countries who have libertarian theory applied on their press are free to talk about their government, their policies, political personalities and much more. So it’s a beneficial point that the people of those countries have seen the true faces and true conditions of every thing.
It also improve the communication process between the government and the locals of the country. The theory works like a democracy where there is a freedom to express. Libertarian theory of media helps the country in which it is applied in to prevent the country from corruption. All the work policies and everything is transparent to all, and every person if the country know about the country’s ups and downs.
But along with the positive side of the theory there are also some negative points and impacts of the theory. Individuals or the media might not always have good intentions towards the government. They must be using media as a source of their benefit and can blackmail the government or any authority with the help of media and audience power.
They can do misuse of power and the press can be use as a tool of defamation for a person authority or any industry. Libertarian theory can be used in the country for the benefit of press or a single person only, which can be harmful for the whole nation. Media by using libertarian theory might challenge the safety and security of state.
Libertarian theory of press can be a cause of conflict between the nation in that way if someone publish a news of any kind of threat then the peace among the people will be destroyed unless it is confirmed that it’s a fake news or not.
Not only threat but if someone posts against any religious matter this also can be a cause of turmoil for the world because if there is no restrictions on the people, they will publish and spread many ridiculous things throughout the world which can be disturbing for any kind of person.
Basically libertarian theory for a country means to spread knowledge among the people of that country because as we say that knowledge is a power. The more knowledge we get the more powerful we become. And for a nation each person of nation must have a right to express himself so liberalism first and the foremost importance key is to consider their people in first place.
There are many democratic countries in the world but the government of much countries does not apply the libertarian theory in their nation. I think the press must have the right to express the thoughts of the people and avoid censorship whether the person is talking against the government or not. Because this is how we will be able to know the truth and we can only try to remove corruption from the world.
3: The Soviet-Communist Theory of Press:
(Soviet media theory) or (Communist media theory).
As we have learned in the previous theory which is libertarian theory, which explains and promotes the libertarian idea for the country. Just like this the Communist theory of press promote the communist ideology.
This theory do the favour for communist Party. In 1917 Carl Marx ideology revolutionized the principles of media and that’s how the Soviet-communist theory of press formed.
In this theory the media is under control of government, and what government does media can’t discuss it. Press is totally bound and controlled by the Government. Media is taken as government’s instrument owned by the state. The criticism of the ideology was taken as a crime and no one can talk against the Communist ideology in the state.
But unlike authoritarian theory, this theory only support the government and the people are bound to it. The media does not show anything against the government. And there is no private broadcasting channels on which press or the public can show their expressions.
The theory says that it help the people of the country specially the working class to work better. It also highlight their problems and the public is encouraged to give feedback through media which could create interest among the peoples. The theory make people aware of communism. And no other things are promoted in the respective countries where the theory implies.
The major cause to restrict media is that that media should not be free to show interest in any other ideology. If the press was free the people will get attracted towards the liberal thoughts. The people of the country will mobilize themselves and there is a fear that they can leave communism. They can be impressed by the British media policies and it would be a huge loss for the country.
This policy let the people work for the government. The theory is applied in the countries like: China, North Korea and Russia (Russia has also libertarian theory of the press in the country).
In North Korea there is totally restrictions on the Press. People can’t talk about the government. The country China does not allow it’s people to use websites. The public of the country can only crack websites by using VPN. Facebook, Twitter and other social applications are not allowed in the country.
According to the Soviet-communist theory of press, the one and only purpose of media is to educate and acknowledge the people of the country and great masses of working class.
Some key points of the Soviet-communist media theory:.
• Soviet media theory looks similar to authoritarian theory of media but they are obviously different from each other. The authoritarian media theory have only one way communication we can say it’s a linear type of communication but in soviet-communist theory of media there is a two communication or a cyclic type of communication, where people can enjoy giving feedback and they are allowed to express their views and opinions but both are under control of the government of the countries.
• Private ownerships of the broadcasting channels are not allowed which is good in some ways that it will not lead any conflict, the press will be always in control.
• But there can be a loss to the country if the elected government is not good for the country. It really would be a great loss.
• The media professionals of the country works as a media operator, they do not occupy any media decision making authority.
• The public can only interact with media in a limited manner
• The soviet-communist theory of media can be a good way if it is applied in the developing countries.
4: Social Responsibility Theory of press:
Social responsibility theory of media is comparatively a new concept which has started in the mid of twenty century. This theory is mostly used by the developing countries and the least developing countries.
The theory is implemented in a way that it is taken as a home for the voiceless nations to have a voice. So the nation’s can make clear their own point of view and can develop public opinion.
The theory allows every single person to have a voice of their own. Every person has a right to express, to write, to public, to speak, to show their perspective they way they want.
Unlike Communist and authoritarian theory, the government does not own the press. The private broadcasting channels can publish the way they want, but in a limit. But there are some guidelines that how to write in a manner full manner and in a responsible way.
The people of these countries can participate and express themselves through media. They can show their response by comments, or by writing and get involved in all aspects of media’s work.
There are some standards that how to show yourself in a respectful manner. You must consider the laws and ethics of press and the things which are obliged or forbidden in your country.
Before broadcasting or publishing any of your opinion as a journalist or a media person you must have to make sure that the information that you are providing is very much accurate or not. If the information is not accurate it will be a cause of losing your job or channel or may be a bad thing for a country.
You must not do favouritism, it’s against the laws of journalism. You must not defame or damage anyone’s personality just for your or your channel’s benefit. Do not damage someone’s reputation nor even precise them.
As we have learned in Libertarian theory of press in which press is free to publish anything, it was actually a threat in some way. So in the book ‘Four theories of press’ the developed a new theory other than libertarian thoughts. In libertarian theory only the well-being persons were getting benefit from that law of press at that time so they develop a new theory of press for all the people of the country.
In Unite stated, 1949 after the commission of The Freedom of Press, the commission found that there needs some changes in the theory so they replace it with the new theory called Social responsibility theory. So the theory can also favour the middle and the lowest class of the country too.
Social responsibility theory, thus became the modern variation in the previous theories which clearly fulfil the right of the freedom of expression and freedom of press in the equal manner.
•••Source Theory•••
Agenda Setting Theory:
In 1958, a study was conducted during the presidential elections in North Carolina during which Maxwell Maxcombs and Donald Shaw prepared a mass media theory. They wanted to know the behaviour and attitude of the voters.
The theory tell us about that how media sets an agenda and how it make us realize that what to think and what to think about. Media provides hints to audience which tells them where to focus their attention.
“The mass media may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly successful in telling us what to think about.”
–McCombs and Shaw
In short, they want to tell us that how media influences our mind and make us think about what media want us to think about. Similarly media plays with the mind of people in that way that it sometimes stress on how people should do their things like which works or jobs are made for the men and what works women should do, this is how media effects our mind and we try to oblige the things which media tell us about.
The things which media show us, they want the response so they create a content in that way that it must be eye-catching. Similarly if there’s proximity and usual ness the people will watch it more. Just like the news which is related to your city or your job or something it would be more effective and will have influence on your mind and you will want to know more about it.
The source must have a content of your type so you will love to watch or read it. For instance some people like to read the first page of newspaper because it contains the most important information in it whether the other would love to read about sports so he will read the sport’s page. In the same way some people like news channels and the other likes drama serial or other forms of entertainment so they watch television accordingly to their type of interest.
Agenda setting theory is like editing the content, it comes after gatekeeper. The editor according to the theory edit the news and make it readable and interesting before reaching it to the real audience.
Assumptions of Agenda setting theory
- Media tries to concentrate on the topics of specific issues and bring people’s mind towards that issues and perceives that issues are more important.
- Media also filters the reality and reshape it in a right manner.
Levels of Agenda setting theory:
There are two levels of Agenda setting theory:
First level:
In level one or the first thing to notice is that how to create impact and effect on audience by your work. Means deciding what common subjects are important and impactful and what parts of the subject are interesting in it. It can be asked through surveys or can be known by audience response. The first level is mostly used by media researchers to study how media influences on the audience.
Second level:
In this level you have to create interest among the audience that they will love to watch or read your work. The second step of media Agenda is to gain attention so they sensationalize the news to make great interest among the people and how people should think about those issues.
Types of Agenda setting theory:
Rogers and Dearing in their book Agenda Setting Research have discussed following Agendas which media put forward during making their content:
Media Agenda: The media persons or the workers of the press decides what to publish or to show on television and newspaper. First they work according to what the Agenda of their T.v channel is and then they make their content. And they make agenda on what mind of T.v program, advertisement and what should be first news.
Policy Agenda: In policy Agenda the gatekeeper decides what to publish, they put policy on consideration.
Government or the policy decides what to broadcast or print.
Public Agenda: The Agenda is based on what public want to see.
Parts of Agenda setting theory:
Parts of Agenda setting theory are:
- To create importance of issues.
- Impacts over public thinking or public Agendas.
Effects on policy Agendas.
E. G. In press there is space in newspaper, and in T.v the broadcasting contain time limit so for any Advertisement the company pays the media to broadcast their ad for some seconds and in newspaper same thing is counted in centimetres and columns.
Sometimes media channels keep broadcasting or publishing the same issue or topic today let people think about that issue and make them realize that the issue is important and true. Media try to manipulate the minds of the audience.
Sometimes media agenda bypass two agendas: They suppress public agendas to highlight policy Agenda when it is needed and vise versa.
That is the Agenda of the media to give tough time and to pressurize the government and misinterpret the information, to let them know the behavioural changes of people.
The news reports are set in a way that it compels the audience to think about it and to gain their attention from it. The priority of the news is considered first and then news is set according to media and public Agenda before publishing it on any channel.
To set Agenda in a news is done by the persons called Gatekeepers. Editors are the main gatekeeper of the news and any channel they put sequence in each and every thing and their work is to think about what to broadcast and what should be displayed on TV on any given time. The work of what events should be portrayed by the media channels is also done by the editors of the channel.
Agenda setting theory is used in political ad, campaigns, business news etc.
News comes from various sources, so it is the work of the editors to decide what news should be broadcast on the channel and which news should be broadcast on which time. And which news is not that much important so it should be dropped this all work is done by the editors that’s why they are called the gatekeepers of the channel.
Gatekeepers plays an important role in the media industries because they are the one who regulates all these things and decides what to broadcast and what should not. They understand better and they know that some news are just important for the media industry but not important for the audience, so they publish the news according to their audience by considering public agenda. Their work is of great responsibility and they do their work with much attention because if they does not think about the agendas their company or the peace of the country among the audience can become unstable.
The media sets the news in a way that it get more attention. They prime and frame the news to make it more important and they make highlights to the news to make it more weight fully. It is based on the nature and conditions of the news if the news is about winning or losing of a match or anything thing so the media will portray it in a way that it create more effect and impact on the audience. But if the news is about a war then both countries will portray the news in a different way, both countries will show positive side of their country to their audience to avoid turmoil in the society.
Factors affecting Agenda setting:
For example if the media is in contact with the elites it will effect the media Agenda and public Agenda. So it can be the cause of critics that media can do variations or deviates the news according to their Agenda.
Criticism of Agenda setting theory:
Media does not create problems for the country it only alter the news to make impact and importance in the news to provide awareness on the certain issues.
•••Message Theories•••
# Theory of Diffusion of Innovations:
Everett Rogers a professor of communication Studies, write a book in 1962 in which he has described the Theory of Diffusion of Innovation. As we know that diffusion means spreading so here by diffusion of innovations Rogers want to tell us that how new innovations and new technologies spread in a time.
The theory of diffusion of innovations explain that how a new idea, product or any new innovative technology spread among the people in a certain time. After diffusion the audience or the consumers of that product adopt these changes which are made by that product.
Adoption means variations by something which you have used or saw recently, it occurs changes in your behaviour or lifestyle is called adoption and the adoption happens due to some innovations.
Key elements in diffusion process:
Five are the main elements in diffusion process and they are:
- Innovations
- Adoption
- Communication channel
- Time
- Social system.
Innovation: It is an idea, technology or any new product which is invented or produced to make a change in the society.
Adoption: It is the gain of any innovation which bring any change in the person’s life, opinion, his perspective or in his work.
Communication channel: It is the way through which the innovation spread to the consumer or the audience. Means it is the path which provides innovation a way to audience and it spread all over the audience.
Time: It is the length of the time in which the innovation diffuses to the adopter. In simple way it is the duration in which the audience or consumer adopt the changes which are spread in the society. It takes time to diffuse.
Social system: By social system here we means a group of persons who are engaged in a system for a common cause just for the variation and betterment in the society.
For example: Any new product is invented let’s take an example of a mobile phone. Past twenty years ago nobody know about the invention of mobile phone, they did not knew that there will be a cell phone through which we can communicate and it will be wireless so we can carry it in our pockets. So when the mobile phone invented, it is called an innovation in the society means something new has become a part of the society which is creating a social and behavioural changes in the society, it is called innovation. Then the adoption takes place. People purchased mobile phones in huge numbers and loved it and it did make a change in the society and they adopt that change, it is called adoption. Then the point is how we come to know about the innovations? Is there any sort of channel through which we can know about the new technologies and innovation's advent in the society? The answer is yes, every innovation need a channel through which it can be advertised. So the Communication channels helps people know about the innovation, it can be an advertisement or an announcement by which we can know about new technologies of the world. Then there is time, everything takes time to happen. So whenever any announcement is made for any new innovation it takes time to make public notice it, this is called time duration in diffusion process. Then there is Social System, a society is a social system which makes these changes. When these all elements are combined together then the process of diffusion is taken place. All these elements are important for the innovation to works in the society.
Create an idea of a topic on which you want to do research. Then after this we will select a place where the you can find more consumers. And after that spread your idea through a communication channel it will help you to diffuse your idea quickly. Then it will take time for it then after diffusion a social system adopt the changes. A social system is any physical, social or cultural environment to which people belong and they function with in.
Now the thing is that who makes the decision about the innovation either it is good or bad for the society? It can be known by the range of the consumers who consumed it. There are three ways: 1: sometimes individuals make a decision about the innovation which is optional. 2: If the decision is made by all the members of the social system then it is called Collective. 3: sometimes an Authority makes decision about the innovation.
Adoption:
Whenever any innovation is introduced in the social system it’s adopters increases by watching others who consume it and enjoy it. It is the strategy of diffusion process to introduce the innovation by some highly recommend or respected person to make influence on the society. The second strategy they use for a diffusion of innovation is they give that innovation to the numbers of people who are ready to use it.
Categories of Adopter:
There are five categories of adopter and they are:
- Innovators
- Early adopter
- Early majority
- Late majority
- Laggard.
As a part of being a social system, when diffusion of innovation occurs it spread in the different type of consumers. The person who adopt the changes early has different characteristics than a person who adopt the changes late. The sole aim of diffusion of innovation is to bring a new change, a new perspective in the society.
Innovators:
They are the people who wants to try the innovation first. They are risk takers and they adopt the changes quickly because they have the resources to adopt the changes, to adopt the innovations quickly. They are the one who have made these innovations in the society. They are the first to develop new ideas. They are very close to the innovations and have links with the innovators. They are not afraid of failures they are the one who make a great change in the social system.
Early adopters:
They are the people of the society who loves to lead the system. They are the leaders and they are well educated and financially well stable so they adopt the things quickly after the innovators. They are comfortable in adopting new ideas. We can say they are the first class people of the social system.
Early majority:
The people who are not as rich as the early adopters but are well educated to they love the new changes in the society and they want to adopt the changes which early adopters have already adopted. They can be named as second class. They are rarely leaders but they want to adopt the innovation before the average person.
Late majority:
Developing nations and third world countries are the late majority which adopt the innovations when they get cheaper in price. They are afraid of loss they only purchase the innovations if they are tried by majority of the people to get rid of a loss. There is very little chance of leadership in them and they are not financially well established.
Laggards:
Laggards are the very last to adopt the innovations. They are not established financially and not even have much educational background. Laggards are the one who follows the traditional way instead of innovations. They have a very little or no opinion leadership. They can’t bear the loss of unsuccessful innovations they are skeptical to changes.
These are the five kinds of adopters or we can say they are the types of person which are present in every society if we see clearly those who are unstable financially, it is very hard for them to bring a change in their life.
Five stages of diffusion process:
There are five stages of diffusion process and they are:
- Knowledge awareness
- Persuasion
- Decision
- Implementation
- Confirmation
Knowledge or awareness:
Knowledge and awareness is the important thing in diffusion of innovation. If you are spreading the a new idea or any technology you must have to tell the full information about that innovation because innovation without knowledge and awareness can’t work. People would be impressed by the advertisement of your technology but if they are not aware of how that technology works or what that technology is about then they will not be interested to purchase it.
Persuasion:
Persuasion means to follow or to persuade something to learn the things. If an individual is interested in your innovation then he/she will find the knowledge about it himself.
Decision:
The third stage is to make decision. After getting knowledge according to that innovation and after following it now that individual will make the decision either he will accept the innovation or he will deny it. Either the technology should be purchased or it is not that much reliable?
Implementation:
By implementation it means that either you will purchase the technology or not? You will implement it in your life or not.
Confirmation:
The individual will finalise that he/she is going to continue using that innovation.
Every person first see the innovation and make decision that either he need that thing in his house or not. If he likes that thing then he purchase it after knowing detailed information about it. If he doesn’t like it after purchasing the innovation he will not use it more. And if he will love using it he will continue using that technology and will suggest that innovation to the others this is called the process of diffusion of innovation.
Five factors that influences the process of diffusion of innovation:
- Relative advantage
- Compatibility
- Complexity
- Triability
- Observability
- By Relative advantage it means the innovation has already come in the market before but you have put some good changes in it so people will love the new changes in that technology and will love to purchase it.
- By compatibility it means that how the technology or innovation is good in a potential value and how good it’s warranty is.
- By complexity it means how innovation is difficult to use or understand. It also influences on the diffusion of innovation.
- By Tri ability it means that the innovation is already experimented and is already tried before selling it so it will be good one is the trial was successful.
- By observability it means that how the innovation provides the results.
Overall the topic of Theory of Diffusion of innovation is all about the process by which any innovation, idea or technology spreads, it takes time to spread it and then adopters adopt the innovation and it makes a chance in the society which is called social system. The stages and elements of the diffusion process must be considered first before diffusion process.
#Framing Analysis Theory:
In mass communication the word Framing is meant by the way through which how the things are perceived and visualized and how the things actually are. Frames in communication are considered as the presentations of the actual or real word. Framing is the essential part of interpretation and conveying of data in daily basis. In our daily life participating in a daily conversation we need a language and the words we use sometimes conveys different meaning from the word we are actually referring to. So the framing theory describe us that how to frame the communication words.
One can consider framing as a positive or negative thing because it is done in journalism to change or deviates the concept or some information of the news.
Framing theory suggests that how something is presented to the audience. The concept of framing is related to the Agenda setting traditions both focus on how media draws attention to public and how media frame the work to make it eye-catching in a way according to the Agenda. But framing takes place a way further in a way in which the news is presented creates a frame for that information. This is usually a conscious choice of a journalist and gatekeepers and editors that how that frame the news and how they organize it and present it to the audience.
Framing in mass media takes place on the news content, the ideas, events and the topic they cover. Basically framing is a idea to change the perspective of a person’s mind. Idea to frame the news in different sense or angle. Framing is applied in the form of inverted pyramid style that it can be frame in a way to attract People’s attention.
It is also known as Framing Analysis. It is based on the approach of the editors, that is the reason that different news paper frame the same news in a different manner.
There are two types of framing and they are:
- Natural framing
- Social framing.
Natural Framing:
Natural framing is done when the news is based on the events like natural disasters or any kind of incident like bomb attack or airplane crash. So in these types of events the editors just define the facts and figures they do not agendize the whole reality. In natural framing you don’t have to extend the news just only publish the correct news with accurate facts and figures.
Social framing:
Social framing is done for the social cause. In social framing the news content is framed in a way to manipulate the mind of the audience. It depends on the circumstances and situations either you have to extend the news or you should have to hide the facts for a social cause. Sometimes you don’t have any interesting news topic so you extend the normal boring news and make it interesting so it can be a part of broadcasting and fill us the space.
e.g. Mostly the evening newspapers extend the things and use social framing theory of communication.
Focus on NEWS Framing:
- To establish a cognitive shortcut means to produce effectiveness.
- Oversimplify the news means to put limitations in the topic.
- Distract public from important issues.
- Limiting the ability of audience to think outside of the box.
- Activation of magic bullet effect means directly hit the mind of the audience with your news.
- To spice up the news so it becomes hot news topic.
If the news is about the river pollution then the journalist will reports it in a native's perspective. Basically the editors and gatekeepers decides when to frame the news and where to apply media, policy or public Agenda.
Framing is not only used in mass media but it is unavoidable part of our daily communication. We all do framing in our daily conversations.
Assumptions
The following concepts are associated with framing:
- Journalists select the topics they go to present and choose how the topics are going to be presented.
- Audiences interpret information through their own frames. Audiences’ frames may overlap or contradict the media’s frames.
- Frames are reinforced whenever they’re evoked, whether positively or negatively.
- Frame building could also be a scientific process that happens over time.
- Framing occurs within the media mostly thanks to time and resource constraints on what are often reported. Journalists must know which news are to cover and which to ignore. They have to also decide which facts, values and perspectives are getting to be mentioned or given prominence.
Nature of Framing:
Conflict:
Media try to create a frame to make a news as a conflicting one. Because the conflict caught most of the attention by the audience. So if there is no conflict in a news the media will make it conflicting with the help of framing.
Human interest:
Media tries to create interest in masses in a way that sometimes it is framed to make influences of something and sometimes they demoralize the person or any company to get more attention.
Consequences:
Consequences or results are always taken by considered by the media to see what the output or the result is.
Morality:
Before framing anything do not forget your moral ethics. You have to frame each and every thing in a limit.
Responsibility:
The news media frames must not be taken as granted, who will take the responsibility if something went wrong? Government or the public.
#Content Analysis:
Content analysis comes from documents, texts, words arguments, audio and video, newspapers, magazines and books.
e.g. to know how many news have been published of terrorism in newspaper? And how many columns it has consumed? Coding sheet contains all the analysing reports. The newspaper contains eight columns.
Definition of content Analysis:
The study of documents, texts, audio, video and analysis of content of news is called content analysis. It is learned to make news highlighted.
The detailed information of content is written in a form which is known as coding sheet. Content analysis means your own detailed thoughts and views on a certain topic. In content analysis the quality of words, it’s importance and each and everything is focused.
Social scientists and the journalists use content analysis to examine the reliable patterns of the communication. Media content analysis become popular in 1920’s and 1930’s to set a record of the information together.
Purpose of content analysis:
- The purpose of content analysis is to describe the characteristics and content of the specific news.
- To describe to form of the message content.
- To predict the effects of content
- To predict the contents real perspective.
Content analysis is basically written in the form of numbers and percentages means whenever you analyse any content for media you have to tell that how much percentage of the content is facts and how much figures are put in it.
The review or summary of any television series or any news is not content analysis but to make a list of how much information is put in it is called content analysis.
Content writer:
As a content writer you have to create and write content for advertisements like a script is written. For example: now a days people have made channels on YouTube and they make videos on it. The videos you make also need a content. Newspaper has news editors who gets news reports from the reporters then it is their work to make headlines and sub headlines from that given materials and decides what will be the remaining news.
#Discourse analysis:
Discourse analysis can be defined as the analysis of language or the analysis of spokesman words. Discourse analysis bus the study of large number of words which flows or talked in a flow.
The term discourse analysis was first used by Zelling Harris in 1962, he considered discourse analysis as a method which studies the flow of communication.
There is Difference between a simple text and a discourse text. The discourse text is simply a written form of communication which can be written through spoken speech like: commentaries, speeches e.t.c. The discourse text is written as well as spoken just like scripts which are later performed in the forms of dialogues by an actor
Basically discourse text is a conversation between the speaker and the hearer.
What do we do in discourse analysis?
- In discourse analysis we analyse all the data that are the part of the communication and how the words are delivered by the speaker.
- We observe turn-taking of communication that how one person ends the sentence and how the other answers it.
- In discourse analysis the ending and the beginning strategies of the communication are noticed.
- The emotions in the words are noticed that how the speaker delivers it.
- Interpersonal
- Textual.
Textual area of discourse analysis focuses on the ability to construct texts.
Importance of discourse analysis:
- Discourse analysis is used to interpret the spoken words.
- It shows the message and importance if the spoken and written content.
Types of Discourse Analysis:
Following are the types of discourse analysis:
- Argument
- Narration
- Description
- Exposition.
Argument: In argument communication an analyst has to prove that the writer is correct and he is using accurate facts and figures.
Narration: This form of communication tells a story based in emotions and empathy.
Description: this form of communication analyse and make audience understand the content and visualize it.
Exposition: exposition is used to inform the audience about something.
Further are the three categories of the discourse analysis:
- Expressive: Expressive discourse analyse the blogs, letters and content which is literally creative but non-fictional.
- Poetic: Poetic discourse analyse poetry, creative writing, dramas and it discourse it in a symbolic and metaphorical way.
- Transactional: transactional analysis discourse is used to compel something in to an action. Just like in advertisement motivating a consumer to buy something.
Critical Analysis:
In critical analysis we can criticise on books, films not only on news. For example: Review writing is not critical analysis but it can be critical analysis if we write each and every thing in detail.
#Two step flow of communication theory:
Paul F Lazarsfeld in 1940’s write a book named The people’s choice in which he described that the people are more likely to get influenced by the people rather than any piece of article, and those people are known as Opinion Leaders. Then to support his theory he along with Elihu Katz wrote a book named personal influence which supported his point of the theory.
Two steps flow of information informs that the opinion leaders pay more attention to the mass media and their point of view is very much respected. There are two questions to out in consideration the first one is: how media transfer information? And the second one is: how opinion leaders receives it?
More the consumers of media there will be more opinion leaders. More opinion leaders in the society then more the information can be corrected and delivered. Opinion leaders are those whose information is considered correct and is approved by the audience. After opinion leaders the information is consumed by the public.
People does not directly believe on the media so when opinion leaders approves it then the public consider it true. Opinion leaders perform a duty too. Their responsibility in the society is to scatter the news. Media plays the role of transferring the information and a person who easily transfer that information are known as the Opinion Leaders.
Sometimes in any advertisement, media casts famous actors or political personalities and out them forward because there these persons acts as an opinion leaders. The media casts these people to transfer their message so the people can understand that message easily.
In Two steps flow if communication, the first step is that media spread the information. But mostly people does not take any interest in it so media takes this work by the opinion leaders.
Public message is spread free of cost so media chooses opinion leaders for the liberation of the message. Just like they chosen Sarfaraz Ahmed in the polio vaccine campaign because he is also infected so he is a perfect example and his personality is very much influencive so he was a good opinion leaders for that message.
The Two Step Flow Theory is additionally of interest to the advertising industry. A while ago, advertisers realized that word of mouth and recommendations are a powerful way to sell products. Books just like the Anatomy of Buzz are all about how important word of mouth is to advertising campaigns. Tons of campaigns began to use personal influence by targeting opinion leaders. Anecdotally, this is often something we will probably all relate to – we’re more likely to shop for a product if it’s been recommended by a lover or someone that we trust.
So…what do Gore and Kony 2012 have in common? They’re both good samples of opinion leaders in action. It’s important to recollect that Lazarsfeld defined opinion leaders as being respected individuals within the community, they weren’t a part of the media, they were the sort of individuals that we interact with a day. Within the age of social networking, however, prominent celebrities and journalists often sidestep the media altogether and talk with us directly. In some ways, these people – while they could be a part of the mass media – meet many of the standards of opinion leaders.
Al Gore may be a great example of an opinion leader. In 2008, he was the main target of a documentary called An Inconvenient Truth which followed his campaign to boost awareness about heating. He’s an excellent example of somebody who pays close attention to a problem and helps to sway popular opinion. As a part of something called The Climate Project, Gore enlisted the assistance of 1 thousand public speakers – what Lazarsfeld may need called ‘opinion leaders’ – to assist spread his message about heating. The campaign reached an estimated audience of over a million people.
Kony 2012 is a web video created by a gaggle of activists getting to have a Ugandan wrongdoer Joseph Kony delivered to justice. Virtually overnight, the video and therefore the campaign became a viral success. To get exposure for his or her campaign, the activists enlisted the assistance of several celebrities – including actor George Clooney. The success of the campaign are often attributed to variety of things – like its slick production values and its use of social media – but the importance that these opinion leaders played in spreading this message through social networking sites can’t be overlooked.
History behind the theory:
The sole purpose of this theory was to know about the response of the voters in election that time. The were observing the behaviour of the voters and their rate of consumption of media. They noticed that the advertisement at that time about election doesn’t get any product. The newspapers, television advertisement are not that much influencive if there is no opinion of a leader in it.
Opinion Leader:
Opinion leaders are the group of people whose idea is weight fully influencive.
They give details to the lesser active person of the society.
But opinion leaders have only influence in their society they can not be influencive for the others.
•••Audience theory•••
#Uses and gratification theory:
It is an audience centred approach that focuses on what people do with media. Instead of what media do to people. In 1969 Jay blumer and Dennis mc Quail laid the foundation of their theory. To understand that why people seek out the help of media? For what they use it for?
Why people use media?
- People use media to enhance knowledge, for relaxation, social interaction, diversion and to find a escape from stress of the society.
- It helps people to know about the specific place which relates their life. They use media to fulfil their needs.
- To release their tension.
- People use media for their satisfaction on particular time.
- Cognitive needs
- Affective needs
- Personal integrative needs
- Social integrative needs
- Tension free needs.
Cognitive needs:
People use media to acquire knowledge about certain topics. Sometimes they need to find out something about current affairs and sometimes about any quiz or something.
Affective needs:
People use media to satisfy their emotions. This includes all the emotions like love, sadness or any mood. Whenever we feel sad or get bored we use media to fulfil our needs.
Personal integrative needs:
This is a self-esteem need. People use media to assure their reputation and status in the society by telling the society that they use television and other technologies and they purchase the jewellery and other luxurious facilities by watching television advertisements.
Social integrative needs:
People use media to fulfil their need of socializing with their friends, family any person in the society.
Tension free needs:
Some people use social media to find escape from their tensions and issues of their life.
These were the five major need due to which people use media. Media has become the important part of our life. We can not live in twenty first century with out the help of media. Our studies, way of living, style and everything has become dependent to media. People now a days use media to escapes from the society. When we get traumatic conditions we try to relax our mind and watch some entertainment programs to divert our attention.
Sometimes we can not find any answer of specific question so we rapidly use media instead of searching that answer in a book or by asking it from others. Social media has become the part of life now a days. Applications like Twitter, Facebook, Instagram and WhatsApp has become our daily life routine. We do check our mobile phones before getting up from bed.
People watch television before going out of their house in morning. They check news and watch television programs for entertainment and because the entertainment programs have become more interesting now a days. And they provide realistic content. And they produce sensationalized content which get more attention in the audience. Controversies make the program more interesting.
Criticisms on Uses and gratification theory:
- The uses and Gratification theory does not bring any consideration in the power of media.
- The theory is audience-oriented
- It only focuses on media selective content
- Positive point of uses and gratification theory is it provides attention to the individuals in the mass communication theory.
On the idea of these principles, uses and gratifications goes on to stipulate five assumptions:
- Media use is goal-directed.
- People are motivated to consume media.
- Media is chosen supported the expectation that it’ll satisfy specific needs and desires.
- Media influence on behaviour is filtered through social and psychological factors. Thus, personality and social context impact the media choices one makes and one’s interpretation of media messages.
- Media are in competition with other sorts of communication for an individual’s attention. For instance, a private may prefer to have an in-person conversation about a problem rather than watching a documentary about the difficulty.
People are usually on top of things of media and thus aren’t particularly influenced by it.
Taken together, uses and gratifications theory stresses the facility of the individual over the facility of the media. Individual differences mediate the connection between media and their effects. This leads to media effects being driven the maximum amount by the media user as by the media content itself. So, albeit people absorb an equivalent media message, each individual won’t be impacted by the message within the same way.
- Media is taken as a way to an end.
- Uses and functions of media are different from an individual to a different and from one situation to other.
- Uses also are decided for groups, communities and societies.
- Both individual and group needs are fulfilled by media.
- When needs are gratified, people get satisfaction.
- People aren't taken as helpless victims of media.
- Mobile phones, internet, social networking sites, etc. are new sort of communication tool used for uses and gratification.
#Cultivation theory
Cultivation theory of mass media is proposed by George Gerbner and in his theory he says that people who watch television are mostly like to influenced by the messages of the world. Their way of thinking, their perspective about certain topics become different from the other people.
Hypothesis
The theory postulates that watching television frequently influences a private to develop certain ideas of reality or beliefs and assumptions about life that mirror the foremost consistent or universal values that are showcased on television. The more an individual watches television, the more likely he's to be influenced by what he watches in comparison to others who watch less but share other similar demographic characteristics.
The theory argues that the media generally presents an image of the world that does not reflect reality. Television images are an exaggeration or fantasy of what actually exists. there's a disproportionate number of handsome gentlemen,beautiful women, crime, wealth and violence. As a result, people find yourself perceiving the important world during a distorted manner and viewing actuality through a ‘television perspective.’
Television offers a plethora of ideas and conceptions on a spread of social and cultural dynamics like race, gender, sexuality, etc. Over a period of your time, a fixed image of various groups of people is formed and viewers start to absorb these ideas which they then use as a map to navigate through life. This constant exposure to the media content cultivates specific values, beliefs, attitudes and desires in people. These newly preconceived notions shape their perception of the world and that they ultimately influence how others perceive them. People, therefore, find yourself unconsciously shaping their thought processes and behavior supported what they consume. In today’s world, people are increasingly beginning to depend upon television quite the other medium to know the intricate web of the norms, values and mindset of the society during which they live.
Cultivation theory research views television as a system of messages and tries to know its function and consequences on an audience. These messages complement each other and are organic and coherent in nature. Cultivation analysis focuses on the impact of future cumulative exposure to television.
Application of Theory
Various studies have supported the claim that those that watch television more frequently, often display higher tendencies of being depressed and lonely, sense of alienation, have feelings of mistrust and think that the world may be a malicious place. A study conducted in an experimental setting saw the result, at the top of the trial period, that students who watch more action-adventure programs during a six month period are more likely to believe that the world was a really dangerous place. They also believe that there's a high chance that they might be personally involved during a violent incident. This is in stark contrast compared to the attitudes of other students who did not watch as many action-adventure shows as the test group.
Research by L.J.Shrum has shown that folks who watch television frequently are more likely to answer questions faster also. They also give answers that reflect the messages or images that are the foremost common or repeated on television.
The cultivation theory has been widely utilized in the study of violence in television. The theory has been wont to explain how children who watch violent cartoons become violent themselves. Repeated exposure to violence on television reinforces existing beliefs that the world is a dangerous and unsafe place. Exposure to television further strengthens the position that acts of violence are a natural response to situations of conflict. Over the years, research in the field has diversified and today, cultivation theory is applied to studies on health, religion, sex roles, political orientations, etc.
Cultivation theory examines the long-term effects of television viewing on viewers' conceptions of social reality. Cultivation analysis initiated as a part of the Cultural Indicators Project founded by George Gerbner in the late 1960s. The central hypothesis of cultivation analysis is that folks who spend longer watching television are more likely to perceive the important world during a way as most ordinarily depicted in television messages, as compared to those that watch less television, but are otherwise comparable in major demographic features (Gerbner, 1969).
Television is the most pervasive and constant learning system in society. Cultivation analysis approaches television as a message system with aggregate and repetitive patterns of images, the contents of which were absorbed by viewers over long period of time. Different from the then traditional mass communication research, which focused on the consequences of individual messages, episodes, series, and genres on immediate attitudes and behaviour changes, cultivation analysis emphasizes the overall and pervasive outcomes of cumulative television exposure (Signorelli and Morgan, 2009).
Findings of nearly four decades of cultivation research on television message systems have unveiled a ‘distorted’ reality: exaggerated crime rates, overrepresentation of violence, gender-role stereotyping, non-traditional family composition, the ‘mean world syndrome,’ then on (Morgan et al., 2009). This misshaped, yet repetitive represented ‘reality,’ gradually dominates the worldview of heavy viewers, who believe television as their main source of beliefs and values.
As a primary storyteller in our society, television not only impacts on individual ideologies, but also influences society as an entire as the elemental manifestation of the mainstream culture. Among heavy television viewers, the relatively common outlooks and values cultivated by television become the dominant or mainstream culture of that society, despite individual differences. The notion of mainstreaming refers to “television viewing may reduce or override differences in perspectives and behaviour which stem from other social, cultural, and demographic influences”
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